The point of no return had come to the Roman Republic, as soldiers' loyalty was transferred to the general rather than the state. Think about this development: You remember that in pre-polis Greece, the soldier's loyalty was to himself (if you could even call him a "soldier"). Then, as cities were established, the hoplite fought in phalanx formation for the glory of the polis (the community as a whole). The Romans adapted the phalanx and formed maniples, cohorts, and legions. They fought together for the glory of Rome (remember SPQR!) against common enemies like Hannibal. The army expanded along with the Republic and was used for defense and offense alike. So, what happened? What word would you use to describe events surrounding the rise of men like Marius and Crassus? What might Lucullus have said about selfless sacrifice in the name of patriotism (think about the literal meaning of that word-- loyalty to the patriae, the "fatherland")? As we shall see, military "reform" would have a domino effect which would lead to the most famous (or infamous, depending on your opinion) general of all, a man whose life was built on a relentless quest for domination, and who, unlike Sulla, would not be satisfied with becoming merely "dictator for life" and then peacefully rebuilding the government. See Q1 on Handout 2
Above: This is a still from the epic 1959 movie Ben Hur (read about it here) starring Charlton Heston. It is an historical film about Jesus Christ set in the early Roman Empire. The scene above shows the Via Appia (Appian Way), a well-traveled Roman road infamous for its use as a venue for public execution.
The prisoners being crucified above experienced the same fate as Spartacus's men who were not killed by Crassus on the battlefield. Read about crucifixion and why this was used as a method of execution here, and then click back to this blog. See Q2
Go to this link and read about Pompey in Judaea.
This illustration shows Cicero, the best orator of his time, prosecuting the corrupt politician Catiline, who attempted to overthrow the Republic in the "Catiline conspiracy." Click on this illustration to enlarge it, and examine it. How does the artist depict this situation well? Think about the use of light and shadow, the position of figures in the illustration, and the way Cicero and Catiline are posed (body language is very important in works of art!) Think about this image as you read your primary document on Cicero later today (Handout 2: The Verrine Orations).
The equestrian statue above, located in the town square of Clermont, France, shows the most famous Gaul, the general Vercingetorix, rallying his troops as he rides over the body of a Roman soldier. Although the fierce "barbarian" Gauls had been feared by Romans for centuries (remember that the early Romans had to pay off the Gauls to leave Rome), their rule over the area north of the Alps that is today modern France was ended by another ambitious Roman general with loyal troops, Julius Caesar. As you will see in tomorrow's video, Caesar knew that the best way to get respect in Rome was through military conquest, and he spent much time and energy the large, challenging region of Gaul. As you read about and watch the video of Caesar, think of Hannibal. How were these men similar, both in military tactics and how they were seen by their troops?
Read about Julius Caesar in Gaul here (Q8-Q10 on Handout 2)
Here is Vercingetorix surrendering to Caesar. Examine this painting in the same way as the Cicero illustration. How does the artist show that Vercingetorix, although defeated, has maintained his dignity? Do the two generals respect each other? How can we tell? List other aspects of this painting that tell the story of the Gallic Wars.
After Caesar's conquest of the Gauls, the Roman Republic would enter a dark era of violence, intriuge, and political and social unraveling.
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